Chapter 3. Philosophy and Ethics
Branches of philosophy [2]:
Metaphysics: the nature of reality, existence, mind and time.
Epistemology: the nature, sources and limits of knowledge.
Logic: the study of valid reasoning.
Ethics: what is right, good and just.
Political philosophy: authority, liberty, justice and the best form of society.
Aesthetics: beauty, art and taste.
Key figures. Socrates questioned assumptions through dialogue; Plato argued for ideal forms and wrote on justice; Aristotle studied logic, ethics, politics and nature. In China, Confucius, Laozi and Mencius shaped ethical and political thought; in India, thinkers of the Upanishadic, Buddhist and Jain traditions explored mind, suffering and liberation; in the Islamic world, Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) developed and transmitted philosophy and science. Later, Descartes emphasized reason and doubt, Hume stressed experience, and Kant sought to combine them [2].
Major ethical theories [3][4]
| Theory | Core idea | Representative thinkers |
| Consequentialism (utilitarianism) | The right action produces the best overall outcomes (greatest well-being) | Bentham, Mill |
| Deontology | Some duties and rights hold regardless of outcomes; act on universalizable principles | Kant |
| Virtue ethics | Focus on developing good character and practical wisdom | Aristotle |
| Care ethics | Emphasizes relationships, empathy and responsibility | Gilligan, Noddings |
| Contractualism | Right principles are those people could agree to as fair | Rawls |
Justice. Rawls’s A Theory of Justice proposes imagining principles chosen behind a “veil of ignorance,” where no one knows their own position in society, and argues this would lead to equal basic liberties and to inequalities only if they benefit the least advantaged [5]. Sen emphasizes people’s real freedoms and capabilities [25].
Applied ethics addresses issues such as bioethics, environmental ethics, business ethics, animal welfare and technology ethics [3][4].
Moral reasoning. Identify the issue, gather facts, consider stakeholders, apply different ethical theories, evaluate consequences and rights, and justify your decision while remaining open to criticism.
Review: Which ethical theory judges actions mainly by their consequences? (Answer: consequentialism, especially utilitarianism.)