Chapter 9. The Age of Revolutions, 1750–1850

American Revolution. Thirteen British colonies declared independence in 1776, citing natural rights, and won with French help; the US Constitution followed in 1787–1789 [19].

French Revolution. Beginning in 1789, it ended the old monarchy and feudal privileges, proclaimed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, and led to the Terror and then the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, who became emperor in 1804. After Napoleon’s defeat, the Congress of Vienna (1815) restored a balance of power among European states [19].

Haitian Revolution. An uprising of enslaved and free people of colour in the French colony of Saint-Domingue began in 1791 and led to independence in 1804, creating the first Black-led republic and the first nation founded after a successful slave revolt [19].

Latin American independence. Leaders such as Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín led independence movements, and most of Spanish America became independent by the 1820s [19].

Abolition and reform. Britain’s Slavery Abolition Act (1833) ended slavery in most of its empire; the US abolished slavery with the 13th Amendment in 1865. Movements for suffrage, labour rights and national unity grew in the 19th century.

Review: Which revolution created the first Black-led republic, and in what year did it gain independence? (Answer: the Haitian Revolution; 1804.)